masterthesis/thesis/02_concept.tex

\chapter{Concept}
\label{cha:concept}
The theoretical tool that should be formed to one whole system implementation in this thesis.
\section{Definition of the Biometric Sensor}
\label{definitions}
What part fulfills the BS and what needs to be done.
Record Sensor data, Network Discovery, send sensor data via trusted channel to PIA

\subsection{What has the BS to do?}
\label{sec:bs-usecase}
\begin{enumerate}
	\item Listen for a Trigger to start the Authentication Process
	\item Collect Sensor Data (Picture, Fingerprint) and calculate a biometric representation
	\item Start Network Discovery and find the PIA of this person
	\item Create a trusted and secure channel and transmit the attributes for verification
	\item Restore the state of the system as it was before this transaction
\end{enumerate}

\section{Attack Vectors and Threat Model}
\subsection{The Threat Model}
\label{ssec:threatmodel}
\begin{itemize}
	\item Definition of sensitive data / privacy / metadata
	\item This version of BS is not owned by the user, there is no personal data in the System
	\item Rogue Personal Identity Agent (PIA)
	\item Metadata Extraction
	\item Attribute extraction
	\item Sensor Data Modification/manipulation
	\item Wiretap between Sensor and System (USB or network)
	\item Physical Manipulation of the BS-System
	\item Network - Retransmission of sensor data of a rogue BS
	\item Network - Blocking Data transmission of a rogue BS
	\item Rogue BS Sensor Data aggregation
	\item Rogue BS Sensor data modification before transmission
\end{itemize}
\section{Trust and Security}
\label{sec:trust}
Trust is an essential term in this thesis.
In the world of IT security, the term \emph{trusted computing} defines a secured environment where special or confidential computing jobs are dispatched.
This environment or product usually meets the following requirements
\begin{itemize}
	\item \emph{Minimalization.} The number of features and hence the complexity must be as low as possible.
	\item \emph{Sound definitions.} Every function should be well defined. There should be no margin for interpretation left. Security Engineers should be involved in the development. 
	\item \emph{Complete testing.} Testing for trusted computing includes a threat analysis and exhaustive testing if possible. 
\end{itemize}
Since software and hardware testing is never complete, it is hard to find a good balance between feature set and testing completeness.

However trust in IT is not equal to security.
It defines a subset of IT security where this small well defined environment is embedded in a larger system which is usually untrusted.
Claiming a system \emph{secure} spans the constraints of trust over the complete system, which is not affordable for commodity computers these days.
However it is possible to use the trusted environment to get some guarantees on the untrusted parts of a system as well
In Chapter 3 we will show how trust will be extended in a commodity PC.
%TODO reference to TPM section how to extend trust into untrusted parts of PC

%TODO describe verifiable trust in addition to the previous definition (with example of the ATM?)


Differentiation between trust and security --- and the problem that not everyone is using that right.
\section{Systems of Trust}
\label{sec:trustsystems}
All trust systems are built on the standards of Trusted Computing Group.
\subsection{Secure Boot, TXT, \ldots}
\label{ssec:secureboot-txt}
Trusted Boot is not the same as Secure Boot. Explain the difference
\subsection{TPM1.2}
\label{ssec:tpm12}
Initial Version of the crypto-coprocessor, successfully spread into many systems, but hardly any integration in Trust/security Software

%TODO this is an attempt to describe TPM from the beginning.
\subsection{TPM2.0}
\label{ssec:tpm20}
The \emph{Trusted Platform Module} (TPM) is a small cryptocoprocessor that introduces a variety of new features to the platform.
This module is part of a standard developed by the Trusted Computing Group (TCG), which current revision is 2.0\cite{tcg20}.

The hardware itself is strongly defined by the standard and comes in the following flavors:
%TODO find source of that claim (TPM variants)
\begin{itemize}
	\item \emph{Dedicated device.} The TPM chip is mounted on a small board with a connector. 
	The user can plug it into a compatible compute platform. This gives most control to the end user since it is easy to disable trusted computing or switch to another TPM.
	\item \emph{Mounted device.} The dedicated chip is directly mounted on the target mainboard. Therefore any hardware modification is impossible.
	However most PC platforms provide BIOS features to control the TPM.
	\item \emph{Firmware TPM (fTPM).} This variant was introduced with the TPM2.0 Revision. 
	Firmware means in this context an extension of the CPU instruction set which provides the features of a TPM.
	Both Intel and AMD provide this extension for their platforms for several years now.
	When activating this feature on BIOS level, all features of Trusted Computing are available to the user.
	\item \emph{TPM Simulator.} For testing reasons, it is possible to install a TPM simulator. It provides basically every feature of a TPM but cannot be used outside the operating system. Features like Trusted Boot or in hardware persisted keys are not available.
\end{itemize}
Even the dedicated devices are small microcontrollers that run the TPM features in software which gives the manufacturer the possibility to update their TPMs in the field. 
FTPMs will be updated with the Microcode updates of the CPU manufacturers.

The combination of well constrained hardware and features, an interface for updates and well defined software interfaces make TPMs trustworthy and reliable.
Since TCG published the new standard in 2014 only six CVE-Entries handled vulnerabilities with TPMs\footnote{\url{https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvekey.cgi?keyword=\%22Trusted+Platform+Module\%22}}.
Only two of them had impact on the implementation of a dedicated chip:
\begin{itemize}
	\item \emph{CVE-2017-15361}
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Using the TPM}
\label{sssec:tpm-usage}
On top of the cryptographic hardware, the TCG provides several software interfaces for application developers:
\begin{itemize}
	\item \emph{System API (SAPI).} The SAPI is a basic API where the developer has to handle the resources within the application. However this API provides the full set of features. 
	\item \emph{Enhanced System API (ESAPI).} While still providing a complete feature set, the ESAPI makes some resources transparent to the application like session handling. Consequently, this API layer is built on top of the SAPI.
	\item \emph{Feature API (FAPI).} This API layer is again built on top of the ESAPI. It provides a simple to use API but the feature set is also reduced to common use cases.
	Although the Interface was formally published from the beginning, an implementation is available since end of 2019.
\end{itemize}

The reference implementation of these APIs is published at Github\cite{tpmsoftware20} and is still under development.
At the point of writing stable interfaces are available for C and C++, but other languages like Rust, Java, C\# and others will be served in the future.
The repository additionally provides the tpm2-tools toolset which provides the FAPI features to the command line.
Unfortunately, the command line parameters changed several times during the major releases of tpm2-tools\cite{pornkitprasan19-tpmtools}.



\subsubsection{The Hardware}
\label{sssec:tpm-hardware}
The TCG achieved with the previous mentioned software layers independence of the underlying hardware.
Hence, TCG provided different flavors of of the TPM


TCG defined with the TPM2.0 standard a highly constrained hardware with a small feature set.
It is a passive device with some volatile and non-volatile memory, which provides hardware acceleration for a small number of crypto algorithms.
The standard allows to add some extra functionality to the device.
However the TPMs used in this project provided just the minimal set of algorithms and also the minimal amount of memory.


Since TCG published its documents, several IT security teams investigated concept and implementations of TPMs.



\begin{itemize}
	\item security problems with some implementations
\end{itemize}
\begin{itemize}
	\item Hierarchies
	\item Endorsement Key
	\item Attestation Identity Key
	\item Key management
\end{itemize}

\begin{figure}
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{../resources/tpmcert}
	\caption[TPM Certification]{The manufacturer certifies every TPM it produces}
	\label{fig:tboot-overview}
\end{figure}


\begin{figure}
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{../resources/tpmattest}
	\caption[DAA Attestation procedure]{The DAA attestation process requires 5 steps. The PIA may trust the Biometric Sensor afterwards.}
	\label{fig:daa-attestation}
\end{figure}

\section{Integrity Measurements}
Extend the Chain of Trust beyond the boot process.
The Kernel can measure many different types of Resources.
What is a useful set of measurements

\section{Verify Trust (DA and DAA)}

\subsection{Definitions}
For the definition of the algorithm, some notations and definitions are summarized in the following.
Greek letters denote a secret that is not known to the verifier whereas all other variable can be used to verify the desired properties.
The symbol $||$ is a concatenation of binary strings or binary representations of integers.

Given an integer $q$, $\mathbb{Z}_q$ denotes the ring of integers modulo $q$ and $\mathbb{Z}_q^*$ denotes the multiplicative group modulo $q$\cite{camenisch97}.

\subsection{Discrete Logarithm Problem}
Given a cyclic group $G = \langle g\rangle$ of order $n$, the discrete logarithm of $y\in G$ to the base $g$ is the smallest positive integer $x$ satisfying
\begin{math}
	g^\alpha = y
\end{math}
if this $x$ exists.
For sufficiently large $n$ and properly chosen $G$ and $g$, it is infeasible to compute the reverse
\begin{math}
\alpha = \log_g{y}
\end{math}.
This problem is known as \emph{Discrete Logarithm Problem} and is the basis for the following cryptographic algorithms.

\subsection{Signatures of Knowledge}
Camenisch and Stadler\cite{camenisch97} describe an efficient scheme for proving knowledge of a secret without providing it.
They assume a collision resistant hash function $\mathcal{H}:\{0,1\}^*\rightarrow\{0,1\}^k$ for signature creation.
Furthermore, the algorithm is based on the Schnorr signature scheme\cite{schnorr91}.
For instance,
\begin{equation*}
	SPK\{(\alpha):y=g^\alpha\}(m)
\end{equation*} 
denotes a proof of knowledge of the secret $\alpha$, which is embedded in the signature of message $m$.
The one-way protocol consists of three procedures:
\begin{enumerate}
	\item \emph{Setup.} Let $m$ be a message to be signed, $\alpha$ be a secret and $y:=g^\alpha$ be the corresponding public representation.
	\item \emph{Sign.} Choose a random number $r$ and create the signature tuple $(c,s)$ as 
	\begin{equation*}
		c:=\mathcal{H}(m\,||\,y\,||\,g\,||\,g^r) \quad\text{and}\quad s:=r-c\alpha \quad\text{(mod n) .}
	\end{equation*} 
	
	\item \emph{Verify.} The verifier knows the values of $y$ and $g$, as they are usually public. The message $m$ comes with the signature values $c$ and $s$. She computes the value 
	\begin{equation*}
		c':=\mathcal{H}(m\,||\,y\,||\,g\,||\,g^sy^c)\quad\text{and verifies, that}\quad c' = c\, .
	\end{equation*}
	The verification holds since
	\begin{equation*}
		g^sy^c = g^rg^{-c\alpha}g^{c\alpha} = g^r\, .
	\end{equation*}
\end{enumerate}
Camenisch and Stadler\cite{camenisch97} state, that this scheme is extensible to proof knowledge of arbitrary number of secrets. 
Furthermore, complex relations between secret and public values can be represented with that scheme.

\subsection{Bilinear Maps}
The Camenisch-Lysyanskaya (CL) Signature Scheme\cite{camenisch04} is used for the DAA-Protocol.
Furthermore, the CL-Scheme itself is based on Bilinear Maps.

Consider three groups $\mathbb{G}_1$, $\mathbb{G}_2$, with their corresponding base points $g_1$, $g_2$, and $\mathbb{G}_T$.
Let $e:\mathbb{G}_1 \times \mathbb{G}_2 \rightarrow \mathbb{G}_T$ that satisfies three properties\cite{camenisch04,camenisch16}:
\begin{itemize}
	\item \emph{Bilinearity.} For all $P\in\mathbb{G}_1, Q\in\mathbb{G}_2$, for all $a,b \in\mathbb{Z}: e(P^a,Q^b) = e(P,Q)^{ab}$.
	\item \emph{Non-degeneracy.} For all generators $g1\in\mathbb{G}_1, g2\in\mathbb{G}_2: e(g_1,g_2)$ generates $\mathbb{G}_T$.
	\item \emph{Efficiency.} There exists an efficient algorithm that outputs the bilinear group\\
	$(q, \mathbb{G}_1,\mathbb{G}_2,\mathbb{G}_T, e, g_1, g_2)$ and an efficient algorithm for computing $e$.
\end{itemize}

\subsection{Camenisch-Lysyanskaya Signature Scheme}
The Camenisch-Lysyanskaya (CL) Signature Scheme…\cite{camenisch04} allows efficient proofs for signature posession and is the basis for the DAA scheme discussed in section XY. %TODO reference to DAA section
It is based on a bilinear group $(q, \mathbb{G}_1,\mathbb{G}_2,\mathbb{G}_T, e, g_1, g_2)$ that is available to all steps in the protocol.
\begin{itemize}
	\item \emph{Setup.} Choose $x\leftarrow\mathbb{Z}_q$ and $y\leftarrow\mathbb{Z}_q$ at random. Set the secret key $sk \leftarrow (x,y)$ and the public key $pk \leftarrow (g_2^x, g_2^y)=(X,Y)$ 
	\item \emph{Sign.} Given a message $m$, and the secret key $sk$, choose $a$ at random and output the signature $\sigma\leftarrow(a, a^y, a^{x+xym}) = (a,b,c)$
	\item \emph{Verify.} Given message $m$, signature $\sigma$ and public key $pk$, verify, that $a \neq 1_{\mathbb{G}_1}$, $e(a,Y) = e(b,g_2)$ and $e(a,X)\cdot e(b,X)^m = e(c,g_2)$
\end{itemize}
Camenisch et al.\@ stated in section 4.2 of their paper\cite{camenisch16} that one has to verify the equation against $e(g_1,b)$ and $e(g_1,c)$ which is proven wrong here.

\subsection{DAA History}
Direct Anonymous Attestation (DAA) is a cryptographic protocol, which aims to provide evidence that a device is a honest member of a group without providing any identification information.
Brickell, Camenisch and Chen\cite{BriCamChe04} introduce DAA and implement the protocol for the TPM 1.2 standard.
However it supports only RSA and has limitations in verifying attestation signatures.
Hence, DAA is not used with the TPM 1.2 standard.

Since the DAA protocol is quite complex, it is difficult to provide a sound security model for DAA and formally proof the security properties of it.
Chen, Morissey and Smart\cite{chen09} add linkability to the protocol.
Their approach for a formal proof is not correct, since a trivial key can be used for pass verification\cite{camenisch16}


%TODO Chronic of DAA until Camenisch16, Discussion about broken Proofs in previous papers.

Camenisch, Drijvers and Lehmann\cite{camenisch16} developed a DAA scheme for the new TPM 2.0 standard.
It supports linkability and the proofs for security and correctness still hold.
Furthermore, RSA and ECC cryptography is supported which makes it practicable for a wider variety of use cases.
However, Camenisch et.\,al.\cite{camenisch17} proposed a fix in the TPM 2.0 API to guarantee all requirements necessary for DAA.
Xaptum implemented this DAA-variant including the fixes in the TPM API.
The implementation will be discussed in Chapter 4.%TODO Reference to Xaptum discussion

Analyzing the security and integrity of this scheme would exceed the scope of this thesis.
Hence this thesis describes the DAA protocol and assumes the correctness and integrity.

\subsection{DAA Protocol}
\label{ssec:daa-protocol}
DAA is a group signature protocol, which aims to reveal no additional information about the signing host.
According to Camenisch et al.\cite{camenisch16} the DAA protocol consists of three parties.
\begin{itemize}
	\item \emph{Issuer} \issuer. The issuer maintains a group and has evidence of hosts that are members in this group.
	\item \emph{Host} \host. The Host creates a platform with the corresponding TPM \tpm\. Membership of groups are maintained by the TPM.
	\item \emph{Verifier} \verifier. A verifier can check whether a Host with its TPM is in a group or not. Besides the group membership, no additional information is provided.
\end{itemize}
A certificate authority $\mathcal{F}_{ca}$ is providing a certificate for the issuer itself.
\texttt{bsn} and \texttt{nym} %TODO
Session ids $sid$ is already available with communication session on the network or on the link between host and TPM. %TODO check that
$\mathcal{L}$ is the list of registered group members which is maintained by \issuer. %TODO
%TODO describe \tau
\begin{itemize}
	\item \emph{Setup.} During Setup \issuer is generating the issuer secret key $isk$ and the corresponding issuer public key $ipk$. The public key is published and assumed to be known to everyone.
	\begin{enumerate}
		\item On input \textsf{SETUP} \issuer 
		\begin{itemize}
			\item generates $x,y \leftarrow \mathbb{Z}_q$ and sets $isk=(x.y)$ and $ipk\leftarrow(g_2^x,g_2^y) = (X,Y)$. Initialize $\mathcal{L} \leftarrow \emptyset$,
			\item generates a prove $\pi \sassign SPK\{(x,y):X=g_2^x\wedge Y=g_2^y\}$ that the key pair is well formed,
			\item registers the public key $(X,y,\pi)$ at $\mathcal{F}_{ca}$ and stores the secret key,
			\item outputs \textsf{SETUPDONE}
		\end{itemize}
	\end{enumerate}
	\item \emph{Join.} When a platform, consisting of host \host[j] and TPM \tpm[i], wants to become a member of the issuer's group, it joins the group by authenticating to the issuer \issuer. 
	\begin{enumerate}
		\item On input \textsf{JOIN}, host \host[j] sends the message \textsf{JOIN} to \issuer.
		\item \issuer\ upon receiving \textsf{JOIN} from \host[j], chooses a fresh nonce $n\leftarrow\{0,1\}^\tau$ and sends it back to \host[j].
		\item \host[j] upon receiving $n$ from \issuer, forwards $n$ to \tpm[i]
		\item \tpm[i] generates the secret key:
		\begin{itemize}
			\item Check, that no completed key record exists. Otherwise, it is already a member of that group.
			\item Choose $gsk\sassign\mathbb{Z}_q$ and store the key as $(gsk, \bot)$.
			\item Set $Q \leftarrow g_1^{gsk}$ and compute $\pi_1 \sassign SPK\{(gsk):Q=g_1^{gsk}\}(n)$.
			\item Return $(Q,\pi_1)$ to \host[j].
		\end{itemize}
		\item \host[j] forwards \textsf{JOINPROCEED}$(Q, \pi_1)$ to \issuer.
		\item \issuer\ upon input \textsf{JOINPROCEED}$(Q, \pi_1)$ creates the CL-credential:
		\begin{itemize}
			\item Verify that $\pi_1$ is correct.
			\item Add \tpm[i] to $\mathcal{L}$. %TODO what is the representative of the TPM?
			\item Choose $r\sassign\mathbb{Z}_q$ and compute $a\leftarrow g_1^r$, $b\leftarrow a^y$, $c\leftarrow a^x\cdot Q^{rxy}$, $d\leftarrow Q^{ry}$.
			\item Create the prove $\pi_2\sassign SPK\{(t):b=g_1^t\wedge d=Q^t\}$.
			\item Send \textsf{APPEND}$(a,b,c,d,\pi_2)$ to \host[j]
		\end{itemize}
		\item \host[j] upon receiving \textsf{APPEND}$(a,b,c,d,\pi_2)$ 
		\begin{itemize}
			\item verifies, that $a\neq 1$, $e(a,Y)=e(b,g_2)$ and $e(c,g_2) = e(a\cdot d, X)$.
			\item forwards $(b,d,\pi_2)$ to \tpm[i].
		\end{itemize}
		\item \tpm[i] receives $(b,d,\pi_2)$ and verifies $\pi_2$. The join is completed after the record is extended to $(gsk, (b,d))$. \tpm[i] returns \textsf{JOINED} to \host[j].
		\item \host[j] stores $(a,b,c,d)$ and outputs \textsf{JOINED}.
	\end{enumerate}
	\item \emph{Sign.}
	After joining the group, a host \host[j] and TPM \tpm[i] can sign a message $m$ with respect to basename \texttt{bsn}.
	\begin{enumerate}
		\item \host[j] upon input \textsf{SIGN}$(m,\bsn)$ re-randomizes the CL-credential:
		\begin{itemize}
			\item Retrieve the join record $(a,b,c,d)$ and choose $r\sassign\mathbb{Z}_q$. Set $(a',b',c',d') \leftarrow (a^r,b^r,c^r,d^r)$.
			\item Send $(m, \bsn, r)$ to \tpm[i] and store $(a',b',c',d')$.
		\end{itemize} 
		\item \tpm[i] upon receiving $(m, \bsn, r)$
		\begin{itemize}
			\item checks, that a complete join record $(gsk, (b,d))$ exists, and
			\item stores $(m, \bsn, r)$.
		\end{itemize}
		\item \tpm[i] completes the signature after it gets permission to do so. %TODO Why?
		\begin{itemize}
			\item Retrieve group record $(gsk, (b,d))$ and message record $(m, \bsn, r)$.
			\item Compute $b'\leftarrow b^r, d'\leftarrow d^r$.
			\item If $\bsn = \bot$ set $\nym \leftarrow\bot$ and compute $\pi \sassign SPK\{(gsk):d'=b'^{gsk}\}(m, \bsn)$
			\item If $\bsn \neq \bot$ set $\nym\leftarrow H_1(\bsn)^{gsk}$ and compute $\pi \sassign SPK\{(gsk):\nym=H_1(\bsn)^{gsk}\wedge d'=b'^{gsk}\}(m, \bsn)$.
			\item Send $(\pi,\nym)$ to \host[j].
		\end{itemize}
		\item \host[j] assembles the signature $\sigma \leftarrow (a', b', c', d', \pi, \nym)$ and outputs \textsf{SIGNATURE}$(\sigma)$
	\end{enumerate}
	\item \emph{Verify.}
	Given a signed message, everyone can check whether the signature with respect to \bsn\ is valid and the signer is member of this group.
	Furthermore a revocation list \RL\ holds the private keys of corrupted TPMs, whose signatures are no longer accepted.
	\begin{enumerate}
		\item \verifier\ upon input \textsf{VERIFY}$(m, \bsn, \sigma)$
		\begin{itemize}
			\item parses $\sigma\leftarrow(a,b,c,d,\pi,\nym)$,
			\item verifies $\pi$ with respect to $(m,\bsn)$ and \nym if $\bsn\neq\bot$.
			\item checks, that $a\neq 1$, $b\neq 1$ $e(a,Y)=e(b, g_2)$ and $e(c,g_2)=e(a\cdot d,X)$,
			\item checks, that for every $gsk_i \in \RL: b^{gsk_i} \neq d$,
			\item sets $f\leftarrow 1$ if all test pass, otherwise $f\leftarrow 0$, and
			\item outputs \textsf{VERIFIED}$(f)$.
		\end{itemize}
	\end{enumerate}
	\item \emph{Link.}
	After proving validity of the signature, the verifier can test, whether two different messages with the same basename $\bsn \neq\bot$ are generated from the same TPM.
	\begin{enumerate}
		\item \verifier\ on input \textsf{LINK}$(\sigma, m, \sigma', m', bsn)$ verifies the signatures and compares the pseudonyms contained in $\sigma, \sigma'$:
		\begin{itemize}
			\item Check, that $\bsn\neq\bot$ and that both signatures $\sigma, \sigma'$ are valid.
			\item Parse the signatures $\sigma\leftarrow(a,b,c,d,\pi,\nym)$, $\sigma'\leftarrow(a',b',c',d',\pi',\nym')$
			\item If $\nym = \nym'$, set $f\leftarrow 1$, otherwise $f\leftarrow 0$.
			\item Output \textsf{LINK}$(f)$
		\end{itemize}
	\end{enumerate}
\end{itemize}

%TODO: Discussion: sid removed, RL only works with private keys, etc.